If you asked most runners which physiological quality most determines their race performance, they would say VO2 max. The answer is correct for some runners but incomplete for most. The quality that most separates runners of similar VO2 max is running economy, and it is the quality most responsive to the targeted training interventions that recreational runners typically neglect.
Running economy is the oxygen cost of running at a given pace. A runner with better economy uses less oxygen to run at the same speed, which means they can sustain that speed more easily and for longer. Two runners with identical VO2 max values can produce significantly different race times if their running economies differ, because the more economical runner is operating at a lower fraction of their aerobic ceiling at the same pace.
This guide explains what running economy is, how it is measured, what determines it, and the specific training interventions that improve it most effectively.
What Running Economy Is
Running economy is defined as the oxygen consumption (VO2) required to run at a submaximal pace, typically expressed as millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of bodyweight per kilometre (ml/kg/km). A lower value means better economy: less oxygen is needed to run at the same speed.
An example of why economy matters:
Runner A and Runner B both have a VO2 max of 55 ml/kg/min. At marathon pace (let’s say 5:00 per kilometre), Runner A consumes 40 ml/kg/min and Runner B consumes 45 ml/kg/min. Runner A is operating at 73 percent of their aerobic ceiling. Runner B is operating at 82 percent of their aerobic ceiling. Runner A can sustain this pace more comfortably, will experience less fatigue accumulation over the marathon distance, and is likely to run a faster time despite identical VO2 max.
The economy range in runners:
Running economy values vary enormously between individuals. Elite marathon runners typically have economy values of 180 to 210 ml/kg/km. Recreational runners typically have values of 220 to 260 ml/kg/km or higher. This means that an elite runner uses 10 to 30 percent less oxygen to run at the same pace as a recreational runner. A portion of this difference is genetics and training volume, but a meaningful portion is addressable through targeted training.
How Running Economy Is Measured
Laboratory measurement:
The gold standard for measuring running economy is expired gas analysis in a sports science laboratory. The runner performs a standardised submaximal running protocol on a treadmill at a fixed pace while wearing a mask connected to a metabolic analyser that measures oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. Economy is calculated from the steady-state VO2 at the test pace.
This measurement is precise and reproducible but requires laboratory access that most recreational runners do not have.
Practical field estimation:
Several field-based approaches allow estimation of running economy without laboratory equipment:
Heart rate at a standard pace: Run a fixed distance (such as 1 kilometre or 1 mile) at a consistent, controlled pace on flat terrain and record the average heart rate. As running economy improves, heart rate at the same pace decreases because less cardiovascular effort is required to deliver the oxygen the muscles need. Track this measurement every 4 to 6 weeks to monitor economy trends.
GPS watch metrics: Some GPS watches (particularly Garmin devices) calculate estimated running economy from pace, heart rate, and physiological data. While not as accurate as laboratory measurement, these estimates track directionally with actual economy changes and can be used to monitor training responses.
Race performance tracking: For runners without access to heart rate monitoring, simply tracking race times at fixed distances over time reveals economy trends. At the same level of fitness (consistent aerobic capacity), a faster race time indicates improved economy.
The Factors That Determine Running Economy
Running economy is the product of multiple interacting physiological and biomechanical factors. Understanding which factors are most modifiable guides training priorities.
Biomechanical efficiency: The mechanics of running determine how much of the energy expended translates into forward propulsion versus being wasted on unnecessary movements, impact absorption, and braking forces. As covered in the how to improve running form article on this site, improvements in cadence, foot contact position, arm swing, and trunk position all directly reduce energy waste and improve economy.
Tendon stiffness and elastic energy return: The Achilles tendon and other lower limb tendons act as springs during running, storing elastic energy during the loading phase and returning it during push-off. Stiffer tendons return a higher proportion of this stored energy, reducing the metabolic energy the muscles must produce. This is one of the primary reasons that experienced runners are more economical than beginners even at similar fitness levels: years of training increase tendon stiffness and elastic energy return.
Neuromuscular coordination: The timing and sequencing of muscle activation during running determines how efficiently force is produced and transmitted through the kinetic chain. Better neuromuscular coordination means less energy is wasted on co-contractions (muscles working against each other) and activation timing errors.
Muscle fibre composition: Slow-twitch (type I) muscle fibres are more economical than fast-twitch (type II) fibres at submaximal running speeds because they produce energy aerobically at lower cost. Runners with higher slow-twitch fibre proportions tend to be more economical. Fibre composition is largely genetic but training can influence the oxidative capacity of existing fibres.
Metabolic efficiency: The efficiency with which mitochondria convert oxygen and fuel into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) determines how much movement each unit of oxygen produces. This metabolic efficiency is improved by high-volume aerobic training that increases mitochondrial density and enzyme activity.
Body composition: Carrying excess body mass increases the oxygen cost of running at every pace because more mass must be accelerated and decelerated with each stride. Running economy is expressed per kilogram of bodyweight, so changes in body mass directly affect the economy value. However, reducing bodyweight at the expense of muscle mass can reduce the strength and power that support economy, so this relationship is not simple.
Footwear: Shoe midsole properties significantly affect running economy through their influence on energy return and impact attenuation. This is covered in detail in the footwear section below.
How to Improve Running Economy
Method 1: High-Volume Easy Running
The foundation of running economy improvement. High volumes of easy running produce the mitochondrial density increases, capillary development, and slow-twitch fibre oxidative capacity improvements that underpin metabolic efficiency. They also develop the neuromuscular coordination of the running pattern through thousands of repetitions.
How much volume is needed:
Research suggests that meaningful running economy adaptations require sustained periods of higher training volume. Recreational runners who increase weekly mileage from 30 to 50 kilometres per week consistently show economy improvements over 8 to 16 weeks of sustained higher volume.
The pace prescription:
Easy running for economy development should be genuinely easy, at a pace where conversation is comfortable throughout. Running easy miles too hard reduces the volume that can be sustained and shifts the training stimulus away from the metabolic adaptations most relevant to economy.
Method 2: Strength Training
Strength training is the most underused and most evidence-supported tool for improving running economy. Multiple meta-analyses have found that strength training improves running economy by 2 to 8 percent, with heavier strength training (at 80 to 90 percent of one-repetition maximum) producing larger improvements than lighter strength training.
Why strength training improves economy:
Increased tendon stiffness: Heavy strength training increases the stiffness of the Achilles tendon and other lower limb tendons, improving elastic energy return and reducing the metabolic cost of each stride.
Improved neuromuscular coordination: Strength training develops the rate of force development and the precision of muscle activation timing that reduces energy waste during running.
Reduced metabolic cost of submaximal contractions: Stronger muscles produce the same force at a lower percentage of their maximum capacity during running. This reduces the metabolic cost of each muscular contraction at a given pace.
The most effective strength exercises for running economy:
Heavy single-leg Romanian deadlift (3 to 5 sets of 5 to 6 reps at 80 to 85 percent of maximum):
Develops the posterior chain strength most relevant to running push-off power and Achilles tendon loading.
Heavy Bulgarian split squat (3 to 5 sets of 5 to 6 reps):
Develops single-leg strength in the specific pattern of running, improving the force production that drives each stride.
Calf raise and eccentric calf lower (3 sets of 8 to 12 per leg):
Directly develops calf strength and Achilles tendon stiffness, the primary determinants of elastic energy return during running.
Hip thrust (3 to 4 sets of 6 to 8 reps at heavy load):
Develops glute strength in the hip extension position most relevant to running push-off.
Programming: 2 strength sessions per week are sufficient to produce meaningful economy improvements without compromising running training. Schedule strength sessions on easy run days rather than on days adjacent to long runs or quality sessions.
Method 3: Plyometric Training
Plyometric exercises develop the reactive strength and tendon stiffness that improve elastic energy return during running. Research shows that 6 to 8 weeks of plyometric training improves running economy by 2 to 4 percent in trained runners through increases in Achilles tendon stiffness and neuromuscular coordination.
The most effective plyometric exercises for economy:
Pogo jumps:
Rapid, low-amplitude jumps performed on the balls of the feet with minimal knee bend. Specifically develops the reactive ankle stiffness that improves Achilles tendon spring function.
How to do it:
- Stand on the balls of both feet
- Perform rapid continuous jumps using only ankle extension, not knee bend
- Minimise ground contact time
- Complete 3 sets of 15 to 20 repetitions with full recovery
Depth jumps:
Step off a box of 30 to 50 centimetres, contact the ground, and immediately jump upward with maximum force. Develops the reactive strength and rapid force production relevant to running ground contact dynamics.
Bounding:
Exaggerated running strides with maximum push-off emphasising the elastic energy production relevant to running propulsion.
Programming plyometrics for economy:
Introduce 2 plyometric sessions per week during a dedicated economy development phase of 6 to 8 weeks. Begin with lower-impact variations (pogo jumps, broad jumps) before progressing to depth jumps. Schedule plyometric sessions on easy run days rather than adjacent to long runs or hard workouts.
Method 4: Running Form Improvements
As described in the how to improve running form article on this site, specific form improvements reduce energy waste and directly improve running economy:
Cadence optimisation: A 5 to 10 percent cadence increase from self-selected cadence reduces braking forces and metabolic energy wasted on impact absorption and deceleration. Research has found economy improvements of 2 to 3 percent from cadence optimisation alone.
Overstriding correction: Reducing overstriding decreases the braking impulse on every stride, directly reducing the energy required to maintain pace.
Arm swing optimisation: Eliminating arm crossing and reducing upper body tension reduces the rotational energy wasted on counterbalancing inefficient arm movement.
Hip extension improvement: Developing greater hip extension at push-off increases the propulsive force of each stride relative to the metabolic energy expended.
Method 5: Altitude Training and Heat Training
Both altitude and heat training produce physiological adaptations that improve running economy through related but distinct mechanisms.
Altitude training: Exposure to altitude (above 2000 metres) stimulates increases in red blood cell mass and haemoglobin concentration through erythropoietin (EPO) production. More red blood cells deliver more oxygen to the muscles, which improves both VO2 max and, through the improved oxygen delivery capacity, running economy.
Practical application: Most recreational runners do not have access to altitude training. Altitude tents that simulate hypoxic conditions while sleeping are commercially available, though the evidence for their effectiveness compared to actual altitude exposure is less consistent.
Heat training: Running in hot conditions (above 30 degrees Celsius) produces plasma volume expansion and cardiovascular adaptations that improve oxygen delivery and running efficiency. Research has shown that 10 to 14 days of heat training in recreational runners produces economy improvements similar to moderate altitude exposure.
Practical application: Running in the heat of the day during summer months, or using a sauna post-workout during cooler months, produces heat adaptation benefits accessible to most runners.
Method 6: Footwear
The development of carbon fibre plate running shoes has provided the clearest demonstration that footwear can meaningfully affect running economy. Research on Nike Vaporfly and similar shoes found economy improvements of 2 to 4 percent compared to traditional running shoes, primarily through improved energy return from the carbon plate and foam combination.
The mechanism: Highly resilient foam midsoles store and return elastic energy more effectively than traditional EVA foam. The carbon fibre plate optimises the bending stiffness of the shoe, working with the foam to maximise energy return and reduce the muscular work required for push-off.
Practical implications: Carbon plate racing shoes are a legitimate performance tool for runners competing in races. Their high cost and relatively limited durability make them inappropriate for all training runs. Using them for races and key workouts while training in standard shoes preserves the performance benefit while managing cost and training-specific demands.
Training shoes and economy: Beyond carbon plate shoes, research suggests that slightly heavier training shoes with adequate cushioning do not meaningfully impair economy compared to lighter shoes for most recreational runners. The training shoe selection should prioritise injury prevention and comfort over weight savings.
Method 7: Lactate Threshold Training
Raising the lactate threshold improves running economy indirectly by increasing the pace at which aerobic metabolism remains the dominant energy source. As the lactate threshold rises, the runner can sustain faster paces with lower oxygen cost relative to their aerobic ceiling.
Tempo runs and threshold intervals:
Running at threshold pace (approximately 80 to 85 percent of maximum heart rate, a comfortably hard effort) for 20 to 40 minutes per week is the most effective training method for raising the lactate threshold.
Running Economy Versus VO2 Max: Which Matters More?
Both VO2 max and running economy determine running performance, and they interact in ways that make neither universally more important.
For beginners: VO2 max is often the primary limiter. As aerobic fitness develops, VO2 max improves rapidly and sets an increasingly high ceiling for performance.
For intermediate runners: The lactate threshold and running economy become increasingly important. Two runners of similar VO2 max are differentiated primarily by their ability to sustain a high fraction of VO2 max (lactate threshold) and by the economy with which they use their available oxygen.
For advanced runners: Running economy often becomes the primary differentiator among athletes of very similar VO2 max and threshold fitness. At the elite level, marathon world record holders are not necessarily those with the highest VO2 max values but often those with the most exceptional running economy.
The practical conclusion for most runners: Developing both qualities simultaneously through a training programme that includes high easy mileage (for VO2 max and metabolic efficiency), strength training and plyometrics (for economy through tendon stiffness and neuromuscular coordination), and threshold training (for lactate threshold and its indirect economy effects) is the most effective approach.
A Structured Programme for Improving Running Economy
This 8-week programme targets running economy specifically through the methods with the strongest evidence base.
Training structure (4 running days plus 2 strength and plyometric days):
Monday: Easy run 40 to 50 minutes with 4 to 6 strides (80 metres at 85 percent effort) focusing on form
Tuesday: Strength session: heavy single-leg Romanian deadlift, Bulgarian split squat, hip thrust, eccentric calf lower (3 to 4 sets each)
Wednesday: Tempo run: 10-minute warm-up, 20 to 25 minutes at tempo pace, 10-minute cool-down
Thursday: Easy run 30 to 40 minutes
Friday: Plyometric session: pogo jumps, depth jumps, bounding (3 sets each with full recovery)
Saturday: Long easy run 60 to 90 minutes
Sunday: Rest or easy cross-training
Weeks 1 to 4: Build the habit of including strength and plyometric work consistently. Focus on technique in all exercises. Strength loads should be challenging but not maximal.
Weeks 5 to 8: Increase strength loads toward 80 to 85 percent of maximum. Progress plyometric difficulty from pogo jumps to include depth jumps. Extend tempo run duration to 30 to 35 minutes.
Assessment: After 8 weeks, repeat the heart rate at standard pace test and compare to baseline. A reduction of 3 to 8 beats per minute at the same pace indicates meaningful economy improvement.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can running economy be improved significantly or is it mostly genetic?
Running economy is highly trainable. Research consistently shows meaningful economy improvements of 2 to 8 percent within 6 to 16 weeks of targeted training in recreational runners. While genetic factors influence the ceiling of achievable economy, most recreational runners are far below their genetic ceiling and have significant room for improvement.
How quickly does running economy improve with training?
Plyometric training produces the fastest economy improvements, typically within 6 to 8 weeks. Strength training effects develop over 8 to 12 weeks. Form improvements develop over 3 to 6 months as new motor patterns consolidate. High-volume training produces economy improvements over months to years as cumulative adaptations compound.
Does losing weight improve running economy?
Running economy is expressed per kilogram of bodyweight, so losing bodyweight while maintaining muscle mass improves the economy value. Research suggests that each kilogram of bodyweight reduction produces approximately 1 percent improvement in running economy. However, weight loss achieved through excessive caloric restriction that reduces muscle mass and training quality is counterproductive.
Is running economy the same as running efficiency?
The terms are used interchangeably in common usage but have slightly different technical meanings. Running efficiency refers specifically to the mechanical efficiency of converting metabolic energy into forward motion. Running economy is the broader measure of the oxygen cost of running at a given pace, which reflects both mechanical efficiency and metabolic efficiency. For practical training purposes, the distinction is not important.
Can recreational runners improve their economy to elite levels?
Elite running economy values reflect decades of high-volume training and, in many cases, genetic advantages in fibre composition and biomechanical structure. Most recreational runners will not approach elite economy values regardless of training. However, meaningful improvements in economy are achievable for any runner and produce real performance benefits that are worth pursuing.